Indian National Congress

1. Foundation and Origin

• Establishment: The Indian National Congress was founded on 28 December 1885.

• Venue: The first session was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.

• Key Figures:

    ◦ A.O. Hume: A retired British civil servant who played a catalytic role in organizing the first session.

    ◦ W.C. Bonnerjee: The first President of the INC, who presided over the inaugural session attended by 72 delegates.

    ◦ Dadabhai Naoroji & Dinshaw Wacha: Key founding members who assisted in its formation.

• Initial Objective: To create a platform for civic and political dialogue, promote national unity, and present popular demands to the government. W.C. Bonnerjee stated the goal was to involve Indians in governance and civilize the administration.

2. Theories Regarding its Formation

Historical debate surrounds the motives behind the INC’s creation:

• Safety Valve Theory:

    ◦ Concept: This theory suggests the British (Lord Dufferin and A.O. Hume) founded the INC to provide a peaceful outlet (“safety valve”) for growing Indian discontent to prevent a violent revolution like the 1857 Revolt.

    ◦ Proponents: Radical leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Marxist historians like R.P. Dutt (Conspiracy Theory) supported this view.

    ◦ Modern View: Historical evidence, including Dufferin’s private papers, discredits this theory. Modern historians argue that Dufferin actually criticized the INC as a “microscopic minority”.

• Lightning Conductor Theory:

    ◦ Concept: Proposed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, this theory argues that early Indian nationalists used A.O. Hume as a “lightning conductor” to protect the nascent organization from British suppression. Hume’s presence provided a veneer of loyalty, allowing the organization to grow.

3. Phase I: The Moderates (1885–1905)

This phase was dominated by leaders who believed in constitutional methods and the British sense of justice.

• Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, W.C. Bonnerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and M.G. Ranade.

• Ideology & Methods:

    ◦ They followed the “3 Ps”: Prayer, Petition, and Protest.

    ◦ They sought reforms within the British framework rather than immediate independence.

• Key Contributions:

    ◦ Drain Theory: Dadabhai Naoroji and R.C. Dutt exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British, famously termed the “Drain of Wealth”.

    ◦ Constitutional Reforms: Their pressure led to the Indian Councils Act of 1892, which expanded legislative councils.

    ◦ Nation Building: They laid the intellectual foundations of Indian nationalism.

4. Phase II: The Extremists (1905–1919)

Disillusionment with Moderate methods and the Partition of Bengal (1905) led to the rise of Extremists.

• Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal), and Aurobindo Ghosh.

• Ideology:

    ◦ They demanded Swaraj (self-rule) as a birthright.

    ◦ They advocated direct action, mass mobilization, Swadeshi (use of Indian goods), and boycott of foreign goods.

• The Surat Split (1907): Ideological differences led to a split in the INC at the Surat session. The party divided into Moderates and Extremists, with the Extremists leaving the fold until 1916.

• Reunion (1916): The Lucknow Pact marked the reunion of Moderates and Extremists and an alliance between the INC and the Muslim League to demand self-rule.

5. Phase III: The Gandhian Era (1919–1947)

Mahatma Gandhi’s entry transformed the INC into a mass-based organization.

• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): Approved at the Nagpur session (1920), this was the first mass movement involving the boycott of British institutions and goods. It was called off after the violent Chauri Chaura incident in 1922.

• Poorana Swaraj (1929): Under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency at the Lahore Session, the INC declared “Poorna Swaraj” (Complete Independence) as its goal. January 26, 1930, was celebrated as the first Independence Day.

• Karachi Resolution (1931): Presided by Sardar Patel, this session adopted resolutions on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme, outlining the vision for independent India.

• Tripuri Crisis (1939): Subhash Chandra Bose defeated Gandhi’s candidate, Pattabhi Sitaramayya, in the first contested presidential election. However, Bose resigned due to differences with the Working Committee and formed the Forward Bloc.

• Quit India Movement (1942): The INC passed the “Quit India” resolution in Bombay, launching a final mass struggle for immediate independence.

6. Constitutional Negotiations & Independence

• Nehru Report (1928): The first Indian attempt to draft a constitution, demanding Dominion Status. It was rejected by the British and younger nationalists like Nehru and Bose who wanted complete independence.

• August Offer (1940) & Cripps Mission (1942): British proposals for Dominion Status were rejected by the INC as “a post-dated cheque”.

• Mountbatten Plan (1947): The plan for the partition of India into two dominions (India and Pakistan) was accepted by the INC to arrest communal violence.

7. Important INC Sessions (Quick Reference)

Year	Location	President	Significance
1885	Bombay	W.C. Bonnerjee	First Session.
1886	Calcutta	Dadabhai Naoroji	First Parsi President.
1887	Madras	Badruddin Tyabji	First Muslim President.
1888	Allahabad	George Yule	First English President.
1896	Calcutta	Rahimtullah Sayani	Vande Mataram sung for the first time.
1905	Banaras	G.K. Gokhale	Swadeshi Movement proclamation.
1906	Calcutta	Dadabhai Naoroji	First use of the word “Swaraj”.
1907	Surat	Rash Behari Ghosh	Surat Split (Moderates vs. Extremists).
1911	Calcutta	B.N. Dhar	Jana Gana Mana sung for the first time.
1916	Lucknow	A.C. Majumdar	Lucknow Pact (Congress-League unity).
1917	Calcutta	Annie Besant	First Woman President.
1924	Belgaum	M.K. Gandhi	Only session presided by Gandhi.
1925	Kanpur	Sarojini Naidu	First Indian Woman President.
1929	Lahore	J. Nehru	Poorna Swaraj Resolution.
1931	Karachi	Sardar Patel	Resolution on Fundamental Rights.
1937	Faizpur	J. Nehru	First session in a village.
1938	Haripura	S.C. Bose	National Planning Committee set up.
1939	Tripuri	S.C. Bose	Bose wins election but resigns; Rajendra Prasad takes over.
1946	Meerut	J.B. Kripalani	President at the time of Independence.

Based on the provided sources, the 1886 Calcutta Session presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji was a pivotal moment in the institutional history of the Indian National Congress (INC), marking its transition from a small gathering to a distinct political force.

The 1886 Calcutta Session: Key Highlights

• Presidency: The session was presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, who became the first Parsi President of the INC.

• Organizational Growth:

    ◦ Delegate Increase: The participation grew significantly from just 72 delegates in the first session (1885) to 434 delegates in 1886, indicating a rapid expansion of interest.

    ◦ Merger: A crucial political development was the merger of the National Conference (led by Surendranath Banerjee) with the Indian National Congress, consolidating national leadership under one banner.

    ◦ Structure: Towards the end of this session, the Congress decided to establish Provincial Congress Committees across the country, laying the groundwork for a structured, pan-Indian organization.

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Context: Dadabhai Naoroji’s Leadership and Legacy

Dadabhai Naoroji, often called the “Grand Old Man of India,” played a central role in shaping the Congress’s ideology and evolution through three separate presidencies:

1. 1886 (Calcutta): Established the INC’s organizational reach.

2. 1893 (Lahore): Continued to consolidate the Moderate phase.

3. 1906 (Calcutta): In this critical session, amidst the rising tide of Extremism and the partition of Bengal, Naoroji declared “Swaraj” (Self-Government) as the goal of the Congress for the first time.

Ideally, his contribution is defined by the “Drain Theory”:

• Naoroji (along with R.C. Dutt) formulated the Drain Theory, arguing that Britain was draining India’s wealth through salaries, taxes, and gifts to England, which was the primary cause of India’s poverty and famines.

• The Congress officially demanded that the British government stop this “drain of wealth” at the 1899 Lucknow session.

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Larger Context: The Trajectory of Key Early Sessions (1885–1901)

The 1886 session was part of a deliberate strategy to broaden the Congress’s appeal across religions, regions, and communities. The early leadership rotated sessions geographically and chose presidents from different backgrounds to foster national unity.

Chronology of Inclusivity:

• 1885 (Bombay): W.C. Bonnerjee presided over the first session. Objectives included promoting friendship among political workers and consolidating national unity.

• 1886 (Calcutta): Dadabhai Naoroji (First Parsi President).

• 1887 (Madras): Badruddin Tyabji became the first Muslim President. An appeal was made to Muslims to join hands with other national leaders, and this was the first session held in South India.

• 1888 (Allahabad): George Yule became the first English (foreign) President, demonstrating the Congress’s initial strategy of engaging with liberal British opinion.

• 1889 (Bombay): Sir William Wedderburn (Foreign President) presided. The British Committee of the INC was formed in Britain to propagate the Indian cause.

Cultural and Political Milestones in Later Early Sessions:

• 1890 (Calcutta): Pherozeshah Mehta presided. Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman graduate of Calcutta University, addressed the session, marking the entry of women into the movement.

• 1896 (Calcutta): Rahimtullah M. Sayani presided. The national song “Vande Mataram” (composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee) was sung for the first time by Rabindranath Tagore.

• 1901 (Calcutta): Dinshaw E. Wacha presided. This session is historically significant as it marked the first time Mahatma Gandhi appeared on the Congress platform to urge support for the struggle against racial discrimination in South Africa.

The 1916 Lucknow Session, presided over by Ambica Charan Mazumdar, stands as a watershed moment in the history of the Indian National Congress (INC), primarily due to two major developments: the reunification of the Congress factions and the strategic alliance with the Muslim League known as the Lucknow Pact. This session effectively ended a decade of political fragmentation following the 1907 Surat Split and consolidated the nationalist movement, setting the stage for the mass mobilization phases that followed.

1. Reunification of Moderates and Extremists

The Lucknow Session healed the fracture caused by the Surat Split of 1907, where the Congress had divided into Moderates (led by leaders like G.K. Gokhale and Surendranath Banerjee) and Extremists (led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal) over differences in methodology and goals.

• Context: After the split, the Congress had been dominated by Moderates, while Extremists faced British repression.
• Resolution: The 1916 session witnessed the readmission of the Extremists into the Congress fold, creating a united front against colonial rule.
• Significance for Later Sessions: This reunification provided the organizational strength required for the upcoming Gandhian Era. It allowed the Congress to transition from a deliberative body to a mass movement capable of launching the Non-Cooperation Movement, which was approved at the Nagpur Session in 1920.

2. The Lucknow Pact (Congress-League Unity)

The session was also historic for the Lucknow Pact, an agreement between the INC and the All India Muslim League.

• Terms: The Congress and the League agreed to work together to demand Indian self-rule. Crucially, the Congress accepted the principle of separate electorates for Muslims to ensure the protection of religious minorities.
• Historical Meeting: This session is also noted as the first time Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru met, foreshadowing the leadership dynamic that would dominate the Congress in subsequent decades.

3. Contextual Evolution in Significant Later Sessions

The unity and strategic clarity achieved in 1916 enabled the Congress to radicalize its demands and broaden its socio-economic agenda in later years.

A. From Dominion Status to Purna Swaraj (1929) While the 1916 alliance aimed for self-rule, the goalposts shifted dramatically over the next decade.

• Lahore Session (1929): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress moved beyond the earlier demands to adopt the resolution of “Purna Swaraj” (Complete Independence). It was decided that 26 January 1930 would be observed as the first Independence Day, and the tricolour flag was hoisted on the banks of the Ravi River.

B. Defining Rights and Economic Policy (1931) The political unity of 1916 allowed the Congress to eventually articulate a detailed vision for an independent India.

• Karachi Session (1931): Presided over by Sardar Patel, this session adopted the Karachi Resolution, which defined what Swaraj would mean for the masses. It passed resolutions on Fundamental Rights (guaranteeing free speech, adult franchise, and equality) and the National Economic Programme (focusing on labour rights and state control of key industries).

C. Ideological Conflicts and Internal Democracy (1939) Just as 1916 resolved the Moderate-Extremist split, later sessions faced new ideological divides, particularly between the Gandhian wing and the radical Left.

• Tripuri Session (1939): This session saw the first contested election for the presidency. Subhash Chandra Bose defeated Pattabhi Sitaramayya (Gandhi’s candidate). However, the ideological rift led to Bose’s resignation and the formation of the Forward Bloc. Unlike the reconciliation of 1916, this crisis resulted in a significant departure of a key leader.

D. The Breakdown of the Lucknow Consensus While 1916 marked the zenith of Hindu-Muslim political unity, this consensus eroded in later years.

• Nehru Report (1928): The report rejected the separate electorates accepted in the Lucknow Pact, advocating instead for joint electorates with reserved seats.
• Impact: This rejection alienated the Muslim League and Jinnah, leading to the formulation of Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1929) and widening the communal divide that the C.R. Formula (1944) and other negotiations failed to bridge, ultimately culminating in the Mountbatten Plan (1947) for partition.
• The 1911 Calcutta Session: Key Details
• • Presidency: The session was the 26th annual gathering of the INC and was presided over by Bishan Narayan Dar (also spelled B.N. Dhar).
• • Significance: The session is historically renowned for the first recitation of “Jana Gana Mana,” which later became the national anthem of India.
•     ◦ Composition: The song was written by Rabindranath Tagore.
•     ◦ Performance: It was first sung by Sarala Devi Chaudhurani.
• • Political Context: During this session, the Congress also congratulated Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian community in Transvaal (South Africa) for the repeal of anti-Asiatic legislation, signalling the party’s growing awareness of the diaspora’s struggle.
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• Larger Context: Evolution through Significant Later Sessions (1916–1947)
• The 1911 session took place during a period of relative quiet following the Surat Split of 1907. However, the sessions that followed 1911 demonstrate a rapid evolution in the Congress’s structure, ideology, and inclusivity.
• 1. Consolidation and Inclusivity (1916–1925)
• • 1916 (Lucknow): Presided over by A.C. Majumdar, this session was critical for the reunion of the Moderates and Extremists. It also witnessed the signing of the Lucknow Pact with the Muslim League to build political consensus. This session is also noted as the place where Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru met for the first time.
• • 1917 (Calcutta): The Congress elected its first woman President, Annie Besant.
• • 1924 (Belgaum): This was the only session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi.
• • 1925 (Kanpur): Sarojini Naidu became the first Indian woman President of the INC. Notably, Hindi was chosen as the official language of the INC during this session.
• 2. Structural and Ideological Shift (1920–1931)
• • 1920 (Nagpur): Under C. Vijayaraghavachariar, the Congress reconstituted its Working Committees on a linguistic basis to connect more effectively with the rural population. The session also intensified the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• • 1929 (Lahore): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, this session marked a decisive shift in goals. The Congress passed the historic resolution for “Purna Swaraj” (Complete Independence) rather than Dominion Status. It was decided that 26 January 1930 would be observed as the first Independence Day.
• • 1931 (Karachi): Under Vallabhbhai Patel, the Congress adopted resolutions on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme, outlining a socio-economic vision for independent India that included free speech, adult franchise, and protection of worker rights. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was also endorsed here.
• 3. Mass Mobilisation and Internal Democracy (1937–1946)
• • 1937 (Faizpur): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, this was the first session held in a rural area (village), signifying the party’s reach into the agrarian heartland.
• • 1938 (Haripura): Subhash Chandra Bose was elected President. A National Planning Committee was set up under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru to plan the economic development of India.
• • 1939 (Tripuri): This session witnessed the first election for the post of President. Subhash Chandra Bose defeated Gandhi’s candidate, Pattabhi Sitaramayya. However, due to ideological differences with the Working Committee, Bose resigned and formed the Forward Bloc; Rajendra Prasad subsequently took over the presidency.
• • 1946 (Meerut): Presided over by J.B. Kripalani, this was the last session before independence.

1. The Turning Point: 1920 Nagpur Session

While the Non-Cooperation Movement was proposed by Mahatma Gandhi at the special Calcutta session in September 1920, it was at the Nagpur Session (December 1920) that the programme was intensified and officially ratified.

• Presidency: The session was presided over by C. Vijayaraghavachariar.

• Ideological Shift: The Congress shifted its goal from the attainment of self-government through constitutional means to the attainment of “Swaraj” through “peaceful and legitimate means”. This marked a decisive move away from the Moderate era’s reliance on “prayer and petition”.

• Mass Mobilization Strategy: To broaden the party’s base, significant organizational changes were made:

    ◦ Linguistic Basis: Provincial Congress Committees were reorganized on a linguistic basis to connect better with the rural masses.

    ◦ Grassroots Structure: Ward committees were organized in villages and towns.

    ◦ Membership Fee: The entry fee was reduced to four annas (25 paise) to enable the poor to join.

    ◦ Working Committee: A Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members was established to lead the party.

• Political Fallout: This session also marked the departure of M.A. Jinnah from the Indian National Congress, as the party moved towards mass agitation.

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2. Evolution in Significant Later Sessions (1922–1947)

The mass-based structure established in Nagpur allowed the Congress to sustain momentum through various phases of struggle, ideological conflicts, and evolving demands in subsequent years.

A. The Swarajist Split and Reconciliation (1922–1925)

Following the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement after the Chauri Chaura incident, internal debates arose regarding entry into legislative councils.

• 1922 (Gaya): Presided by C.R. Das. A split occurred between “No-changers” (supporters of Gandhi) and “Swarajists” (pro-changers). C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru broke away to form the Swaraj Party.

• 1924 (Belgaum): This was the only session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi, symbolizing a moment of unity and focus on constructive work.

• 1925 (Kanpur): Sarojini Naidu became the first Indian woman President of the INC. Notably, Hindi was chosen as the official language of the INC here.

B. The Shift to Complete Independence (1927–1929)

The ambiguity of “Swaraj” defined in 1920 was clarified into full independence by the late 1920s.

• 1927 (Madras): Under M.A. Ansari, the Congress resolved to boycott the Simon Commission and adopted a resolution on Purna Swaraj (though not yet the official goal).

• 1928 (Calcutta): Presided by Motilal Nehru. The session saw the formation of the All India Youth Congress. A resolution was passed accepting the Nehru Report’s recommendation for Dominion Status within two years, but younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose pushed for complete independence.

• 1929 (Lahore): A historic session presided by Jawaharlal Nehru.

    ◦ The Congress officially declared “Purna Swaraj” (Complete Independence) as its ultimate goal.

    ◦ It was decided to celebrate January 26, 1930, as the first Independence Day.

    ◦ The Civil Disobedience Movement was authorized.

C. Socio-Economic Rights and Rural Outreach (1931–1937)

Building on the mass base created in Nagpur, the Congress began defining the economic content of Swaraj.

• 1931 (Karachi): Presided by Vallabhbhai Patel.

    ◦ Adopted the Resolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme.

    ◦ It guaranteed free speech, adult franchise, neutral state religion, and protection of labor rights.

    ◦ This session endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.

• 1936 (Lucknow): Jawaharlal Nehru urged the Congress to adopt socialism as its goal.

• 1937 (Faizpur): Presided by Jawaharlal Nehru, this was the first session held in a rural area (village), reflecting the party’s deep reach into agrarian India established during the Nagpur reforms.

D. Ideological Conflicts and the War Crisis (1938–1946)

The organizational machinery created in 1920 faced internal democratic challenges and external war pressures.

• 1938 (Haripura): Subhash Chandra Bose was elected President. A National Planning Committee was set up under Jawaharlal Nehru.

• 1939 (Tripuri): Witnessed the first contested presidential election. Subhash Chandra Bose defeated Gandhi’s candidate, Pattabhi Sitaramayya. However, Bose resigned due to differences with the Working Committee and formed the Forward Bloc; Rajendra Prasad took over.

• 1940 (Ramgarh): Under Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the Congress protested India’s involvement in WWII and declared that nothing short of complete independence was acceptable.

• 1946 (Meerut): Presided by J.B. Kripalani, who was the President at the time of Independence.